Using an Astrolabe Al Sufi, one of the most famous astronomers of the Islamic world was writing in Isfahan (in modern day Iran) in the 10th century. In his writings he outlined over 1000 uses of an astrolabe. Accounts of the astrolabe as a scientific instrument range from the very earliest given by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in around 150BC through writings from the Islamic world to modern day descriptions by historians and curators and all emphasise that the astrolabe is an extremely versatile instrument.
The fundamental operation of astrolabes has varied little in their long history, all use the relationship between the apparent movement of the stars, as seen from a particular latitude on Earth, and time �" allowing them to be used to find the time from the stars or Sun, and the position of the stars and Sun at a particular time (a feature particularly useful when casting horoscopes). All similarly have the flexibility to be used as both an observational instrument and as an aid to mathematical calculation.
An astrolabe is made up of 4 main pieces:
- the mater or base plate
- the rete or top web-like plate which shows the fixed stars, the ecliptic (the zodiac constellations and part of the sky across which the Sun travels) and certain naked eye stars
- the plates, each of which is made for a different latitude. Each plate has engraved on it a grid marking the zenith (point directly over head), the horizon and all the altitudes in between
- the alidade or rule with sights used for making observations and reading off scales.
The rete and plates are designed to fit into the mater.
The Pendulum was invented by Ibn Yunus, a genius in science who lived in the reign of Aziz Billah and Hakim bi-Amr-illah, the Fatimid monarchs of Egypt. The invention of the Pendulum led to the measurement of time by its oscillations. His outstanding work Sijul Akbar al-Hakimi, named after his celebrated patron Hakim bi-Amr-illah, was acknowledged to be the masterpiece on the subject replacing the work of Ptolemy. It was translated into Persian by Omar Khayyam in 1079.
The Mariners Compass The invention of Mariners Compass, which revolutionised sea borne commerce and oceanic shipping and enabled the Arabs to roam over the stormy seas in quest of new lands and additional markets for their commodities, is essentially a contribution of the Muslims to the world of science. Knowledge about the properties of the needle, can no doubt be traced to Chinese sources, but putting it into working shape, in the form of a mariners' compass, was the achievement of Muslim scientists. The compass was probably invented for the purpose of finding out the Qibla for Prayers.
Braille Did you know that well before braille was invented that some 600 years before a Syrian muslim had created his own system? The distinguished blind Arab professor, Zain-Din al Amidi in the 14th century improvised a method by which he identified his books and made notes. Although blind soon after birth, he led a studious life, interesting himself particularly in jurisprudence and foreign languages.
Toothbrush While the toothbrush may appear a modern invention the Prophet Mohammed made popular the use of a piece from the Meswak tree to clean the teeth and freshen the breath! It was recently proven that Meswak contains substances similar to that found in modern tooth paste which help protect teeth and freshens the breath.
The Swiss pharmaceutical company Pharba Basle Ltd carried out experiments on extracts of Meswak, botanically known as Salvadora Persica. It was found that it contains antibacterial substances which destroy the harmful germs in the mouth which cause gum infections and tooth decay. Independent tests conducted on the Meswak extracts in the Departments of Chemistry, Riyadh University, Saudi Arabia and Indiana University, Indiana, USA, have confirmed its anti-inflammatory and antibiotic activities.
Cosmetics One of the leading cosmetologists was the famous physician and father of surgery, Abu al-Qassim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcassis (936-1013 CE). He wrote a monumental work, a medical encyclopaedia entitled Al-Tasreef, in 30 volumes, which was translated into Latin and used as the main medical textbook in most Universities of Europe.
In the 19th volume of Al-Tasreef a chapter was devoted completely to cosmetics and is the first original Muslim work in cosmetology. Zahrawi's contribution in medicated cosmetics include under-arm deodorants, hair removing sticks and hand lotions. Hair dyes are mentioned turning blond hair to black and hair care is included, even for correcting kinky or curly hair. He even mentioned the benefits of suntan lotions, describing their ingredients in detail.
Zahrawi considered cosmetics a definite branch of medication (Adwiyat al-Zinah). He deals with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There were perfumed stocks rolled and pressed in special moulds, perhaps the earliest antecedents of present day lipsticks and solid deodorants. He used oily substances called Adhan for medication and beautification. There are many a hadith of the Prophet (pbuh) which refer to cleanliness, management of dress, and care of hair and body. On this basis, Zahrawi described the care and beautification of hair, skin, teeth and other parts of the body, all within the boundaries of Islam.
Gunpowder Mir Fatehullah Khan is known to history as the inventor of the gun and gunpowder. The presumption that gunpowder was first made by the Chinese does not stand the test of historical research. Writing in his book Arab Civilization, the author says that "gunpowder was a great invention of the Arabs who were already using guns". Guns were used by Arabs in 1340 A.D. in the defence of Al-Bahsur, when Franzdol besieged it. The statement of Dr. Leabon about the invention of gunpowder by the Arabs is further corroborated by Mr. Scott in his well-known work, History of the Moorish Empire in Spain.
The impact of Muslim learning on the West Did you know that between the 7th and 12th centuries, when religion dominated European culture that Muslim educational institutions led the way? As the results of their progressive education reached the West through Muslim works covering everything from medicine to history they helped encourage the revival of learning in Europe.
An important aspect of Islam is to seek knowledge which motivated and led the Muslims to develop a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge in purpose built structures. At first the mosque combined both religious performance and learning activities. By the tenth century, the Seljuks (ruled between 11th and early 14th centuries), introduced the first Madrassa, a proper school built independently from the mosque.
Under the Ottomans (ruled 15th-20th centuries), learning was given a new dimension as the towns of Bursa and Edirne took over as the main centres of learning. The Ottoman system of Kulliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, was indeed revolutionary making the leaning accessible to a wider public though its free meals, health care and sometimes accommodation.
The first university was also developed from the mosque, usually of central location and of primary functional importance. Great university mosques such as al-
Qarawiyyin (859 CE, Fez), Al-Azhar (956 CE, Cairo) and Cordoba (8th century) were the Oxford and Cambridge of Medieval times
Turning clay to gold As far back as the 8th century potters working in what is now Iraq developed a mysterious process called lustre. This was described as an 'extraordinary metallic sheen, which rivals even precious metals in its effects, all but turning objects of clay to gold'.
Lustre provided the right ingredients for producing such vessels in a cheaper and acceptable way as Islam prohibits the use of gold and silver vessels. It was produced from applying a thin glaze prepared from the oxides of silver and copper before the vessel being in a reducing furnace. When silver is used, a paler yellow or golden and silvery effect was obtained. In case of copper the produce of it is of a darker and redder colour.
The technique involved preparing pigments by mixing silver or copper oxides with an earthy vehicle such as ochre, and then vinegar or grape juice were added as medium. This pigment was then painted onto the glassy surface of the vessel, which had been glazed and fired once. The vessel was then fired for a second time in a reducing kiln, and then the ochre was rubbed away to reveal the gold lustre.
Pioneering plastic surgery Did you know that way back in the 10th century Muslim doctor Al-Zahrawi pioneered plastic surgery. In fact it was his practice of using ink to mark the incisions that has now become a standard procedure. Most of the instruments Al-Zahrawi invented are still used today. In his al-Tasrif book, he talked about surgery for nose polyp removal and dealt with obstetrics and the surgery of eyes, ears, and teeth and gave detailed description of their surgical instruments.
Calligraphy and reform of the Arabic language As the teachings of Islam spread beyond the boundaries of the Arabian Peninsula, an enormous number of people worldwide became Muslims. The new Muslims interpreted the art of writing as an abstract expression of Islam, each according to their own cultural and aesthetic systems. The influx of this cultural diversity led to two major events: the birth of regional calligraphic schools and styles such as Ta'liq in Persia and Deewani in Turkey, and the need to reform of the Arabic language. A clear and universal language with legible script was needed if the non-Arab Muslims were to learn Arabic and become part of the Islamic melting pot.
The first movement to reform the Arabic language and writing system came during the Umayyad era. Abul Aswad ad-Du'ali was the prophet and legendary founder of Arabic grammar and is credited with the invention of placing diacritical points to distinguish between certain identical consonants such as the 'gaf' and 'fa' in the Arabic alphabet. This system of diacritical marks is known as Tashkil (vocalization). Different colors also were introduced to differentiate between these marks--black for the diacriticals and red or yellow for the vocalics.
The powerful and energetic Umayyad viceroy al-Hajjaj Ibn Yousuf al-Thaqafi (694-714), took on the responsibility of solving problems concerning diacriticals. He commissioned Nasr and Yehya to refine the Tashkil system. They introduced the use of dots and certain vowel signs as differentiating marks. The dots were placed either above or beneath the letter, either single or in groups of two or three.
Unfortunately, for many people and scribes the system was unclear and confusing. A more sophisticated system was needed. The second reform movement was undertaken around 786. Khalil Ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, the famous Arab philologist and lexicographer, was entrusted with devising a new Tashkil system. Al-Farahidi introduced vowel signs inspired by the initial shape or parts of certain letters. The sign 'hamza,' for example, is part of the letter 'ayn' (without its end-tail).
The new system gained wide popularity throughout the Muslim world. And Arabic calligraphy acquired the characteristics of beauty, sanctity, and versatility. Arabic calligraphy was used administratively, on architecture, on coins, to pen impressive epistles, and to produce elegant books, especially the Holy Qur'an, miniatures, and other literary works.
Manufacturing of Paper and Cloth The first paper in Islamic countries was manufactured in 794 A.D. in Baghdad by Yusuf Bin Omar. The paper manufactured in Arab countries was of superior quality than that made in Europe. By further developing the technique, they managed to produce paper on a larger scale. A paper mill was established in Baghdad, and soon paper replaced parchment (skin of animals) and papyrus ('paper' made from plants). The development of paper made knowledge and learning easier, for more people were able to have access to it. As the use of paper increased, vast numbers of books were produced. The industry spread further West, eventually reaching Europe.
In the manufacture of cloth, Muslims particularly in Spain exhibited marvellous skill and taste. Their woven cloth captured almost all the big markets of the world and was considered to be the finest as well as extremely durable.
The Agricultural Revolution As early as the ninth century, a modern agricultural system became central to economic life and organization in the Muslim land.
The great Islamic cities of the Near East, North Africa and Spain, Artz explains, were supported by an elaborate agricultural system that included extensive irrigation and an expert knowledge of the most advanced agricultural methods in the world.
The Muslims reared the finest horses and sheep and cultivated the best orchards and vegetable gardens. They knew how to fight insect pests, how to use fertilizers, and they were experts at grafting trees and crossing plants to produce new varieties.
Glick defines the Muslim agricultural revolution in the introduction of new crops, which, combined with extension and intensification of irrigation, created a complex and varied agricultural system, whereby a greater variety of soil types were put to
efficient use; where fields that had been yielding one crop yearly at most prior to the Muslims were now capable of yielding three or more crops, in rotation; and where agricultural production responded to the demands of an increasingly sophisticated and cosmopolitan urban population by providing the towns with a variety of products unknown in Northern Europe.
Whilst for Scott, the agricultural system of the Spanish Muslims, in particular, was `the most complex, the most scientific, the most perfect, ever devised by the ingenuity of man.'
Fertilisers, in their variety, were used according to a well-advanced methodology; whilst a maximum amount of moisture in the soil was preserved.
Soil rehabilitation was constantly cared for, and preserving the deep beds of cropped land from erosion was, according to Bolens, again, `the golden rule of ecology,' and was `subject to laws of scrupulous careful ecology.'
The rise of productivity of agricultural land and sometimes of agricultural labour owe to the introduction of higher yielding new crops and better varieties of old crops.
Irrigation, from Andalusia to the far East, from the Sudan to Afghanistan, remained central, `the basis of all agriculture and the source of all life.'
The Muslims repaired them and constructed new ones; besides devising new techniques to catch, channel, store and lift the water, and making ingenious combinations of available devices.
Agriculture: Water Management Water, so precious a commodity in a more Islamically aware age, was managed according to stringent rules, any waste of the resource banned, and the most severe economy enforced. Thus, in the Algerian Sahara various water management techniques were used to make the most effective use of the resource.
The Foggaras, a network of underground galleries, conducted water from one place to the other over very long distances so as to avoid evaporation. Although the system is still in use today, the tendency at present is for over-use and waste of water. Still in Algeria, in the Beni Abbes region, in the Sahara, south of Oran, farmers used a clepsydra (water regulator) to determine the duration of water use for every user in the area.
This clepsydra regulates with precision, and night and day, the amount going to each farmer, timed by the minute, throughout the year, and taking into account seasonal variations. Each farmer is informed of the timing of his turn, and summoned to undertake necessary action to ensure effective supply to his plot.
In Spain, the same strict management was in operation. The water conducted from one canal to the other was used more than once, the quantity supplied accurately graduated; distributing outlets were adapted to each soil variety, two hundred and twenty four of these, each with a specific name.
All disputes and violations of laws on water were dealt with by a court-whose judges were chosen by the farmers themselves, this court named The Tribunal of the Waters, which sat on Thursdays at the door of the principal mosque. Ten centuries later, the same tribunal still sits in Valencia, but at the door of the cathedral.
Chess In the 8th century, Muslims brought chess to Spain, and it spread to Western Europe.
Gardens By the 8th century botanical gardens could be found in Cordoba, Baghada, Cairo and Fez. Numerous herbs and drugs were grown, experiments were conducted, and of course, they were places of relaxation and beauty as well.
Libraries Book stalls began to crop up all over Muslim lands by the 9th and 10th Centuries. The proliferation of books also meant that libraries became widespread.
Geography It was al-Idrisi that drew the first detailed scientific map of the world in the 12th century. He also wrote a book on the geography of the world called "The book of Roger", named after his patron, Roger the Second, the Norman King of Siciliy
Travelling Muslim sailors, merchants and explorers travelled far and wide. In the 14th century Ibn Battuta spent 28 years of his life travelling. His journeys took him from Morocco to China.
Architecture The 15th and 16th centuries were also a golden age of architecture in the Muslim world. The Alhambra Palace in Spain in the 14th century, the Sulemaniyye Mosque built by Mimar Sinan in Istanbul in 1558, the Taj Mahal, constructed by Shah Jahan in the 17th century in India, are all examples of the splendour of Muslim architecture.
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